3.1 The human body and movement in physical activity and sport
Applied anatomy and physiology
Students should develop knowledge and understanding of the key body systems and how they impact on health, fitness and performance in physical activity and sport.
The structure and functions of the musculoskeletal system
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Bones |
Identification of the bones at the following locations:
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Structure of the skeleton |
How the skeletal system provides a framework for movement (in conjunction with the muscular system):
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Functions of the skeleton |
Functions should be applied to performance in physical activity. |
Muscles of the body |
Identification of the following muscles within the body:
Students should be taught the role of tendons (attaching muscle to bones). |
Structure of a synovial joint |
Identification of the following structures of a synovial joint and how they help to prevent injury:
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Types of freely movable joints that allow different movements |
Identification of the types of joints with reference to the following:
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How joints differ in design to allow certain types of movement at a joint |
Understand that the following types of movement are linked to the appropriate joint type, which enables that movement to take place:
Application to specific sporting actions is in movement analysis. |
How the major muscles and muscle groups of the body work antagonistically on the major joints of the skeleton to affect movement in physical activity at the major movable joints |
With reference to the shoulder, elbow, hip, knee and ankle joints:
The difference between concentric and eccentric (isotonic) contractions. |
The structure and functions of the cardio-respiratory system
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The pathway of air | Identification of the pathway of air (limited to):
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| Gaseous exchange | Gas exchange at the alveoli – features that assist in gaseous exchange:
Oxygen combines with haemoglobin in the red blood cells to form oxyhaemoglobin. Students should also know that haemoglobin can carry carbon dioxide. |
| Blood vessels | Structure of arteries, capillaries and veins:
How the structure of each blood vessel relates to the function:
Students should be taught the names of the arteries and the veins associated with blood entering and leaving the heart. |
| Structure of the heart | Structure of the heart:
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| The cardiac cycle and the pathway of the blood | The order of the cardiac cycle, including diastole (filling) and systole (ejection) of the chambers. This starts from a specified chamber of the heart, eg the cardiac cycle starting at the right ventricle. Pathway of the blood:
Valve names are not required but students should be taught that valves open due to pressure and close to prevent backflow. |
Cardiac output, stroke volume and heart rate | Cardiac output, stroke volume and heart rate, and the relationship between them. Cardiac output (Q) = stroke volume x heart rate. Students should be taught how to interpret heart rate graphs, including an anticipatory rise, and changes in intensity. |
Mechanics of breathing – the interaction of the intercostal muscles, ribs and diaphragm in breathing | Inhaling (at rest) with reference to the roles of the:
Exhaling (at rest) with reference to the roles of the:
Lungs can expand more during exercise (inspiration) due to the use of pectorals and sternocleidomastoid. During exercise (expiration), the rib cage is pulled down quicker to force air out quicker due to use of the abdominal muscles. Changes in air pressure cause the inhalation and exhalation. |
Interpretation of a spirometer trace | Identification of the following volumes on a spirometer trace and an understanding of how these may change from rest to exercise:
Interpretation and explanation of a spirometer trace (and continue a trace on paper) to reflect the difference in a trace between rest and the onset of exercise. |
Anaerobic and aerobic exercise
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Understanding the terms aerobic exercise (in the presence of oxygen) and anaerobic exercise (in the absence of enough oxygen) |
Definition of the terms:
Summary of aerobic exercise (glucose + oxygen → energy + carbon dioxide + water). Summary of anaerobic exercise (glucose → energy + lactic acid). |
The use of aerobic and anaerobic exercise in practical examples of differing intensities |
Link practical examples of sporting situations to aerobic or anaerobic exercise. Identification of the duration and/or intensity of a physical activity in order to identify and justify why it would be aerobic or anaerobic, eg marathon (aerobic), sprint (anaerobic). |
Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC)/oxygen debt as the result of muscles respiring anaerobically during vigorous exercise and producing lactic acid |
Definition of the term EPOC (oxygen debt). An understanding that EPOC (oxygen debt) is caused by anaerobic exercise (producing lactic acid) and requires the performer to maintain increased breathing rate after exercise to repay the debt. |
The recovery process from vigorous exercise |
The following methods to recover from exercise, including the reasons for their use:
Students should be taught to evaluate the use of these methods, justifying their relevance to different sporting activities. |
The short and long term effects of exercise
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Immediate effects of exercise (during exercise) |
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Short-term effects of exercise (up to 36 hours after exercise) |
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Long-term effects of exercise (months and years of exercising) |
Students should be taught the components of fitness to understand the long term effects of exercise. |
Movement analysis
Students should develop knowledge and understanding of the basic principles of movement and their effect on performance in physical activity and sport.
Lever systems, examples of their use in activity and the mechanical advantage they provide in movement
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First, second and third class lever systems within sporting examples |
Identification of first, second and third class lever systems. Basic drawings of the three classes of lever to illustrate the positioning of:
Draw linear versions of a lever, showing the positioning of the fulcrum, load/resistance and effort. Students do not need to be taught to draw anatomical body parts but must be able to link the correct lever to a sporting movement or action. Interpretation of sporting movements or actions which involve flexion or extension of the elbow and/or knee, and plantar or dorsi-flexion at the ankle. |
Mechanical advantage – an understanding of mechanical advantage in relation to the three lever systems |
Label the effort arm and load/resistance arm on the three classes of lever. Mechanical advantage = effort arm ÷ weight (resistance) arm. Labelling of the effort arm and resistance arm on lever drawings, and interpretation of the mechanical advantage of that lever. |
Analysis of basic movements in sporting examples |
Types of movement:
This section links specific sporting actions to the types of movement. Applied anatomy and physiology links the joint type to the type of movement only. This should include but not be limited to the following sporting actions:
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Planes and axes of movement
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Identification of the relevant planes (frontal, transverse, sagittal) and axes (longitudinal, transverse, sagittal) of movement used whilst performing sporting actions |
Planes (frontal, transverse, sagittal) and axes (longitudinal, transverse, sagittal) should be related to sporting actions. Teaching of these planes/axes should include but not be limited to the following sporting actions:
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Physical training
Students should develop knowledge and understanding of the principles of training and different training methods in order to plan, carry out, monitor and evaluate personal exercise and training programmes.
The relationship between health and fitness and the role that exercise plays in both
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Health and fitness |
Definitions of health and fitness. |
The relationship between health and fitness |
Decreased fitness because of ill health, ie poor health can result in an inability to train, lowers fitness. Increased fitness despite ill health, ie unhealthy but able to train, increases fitness. |
The components of fitness, benefits for sport and how fitness is measured and improved
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| The components of fitness | Definitions of the following components of fitness:
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| Linking sports and physical activity to the required components of fitness | Understand and justify why the components of fitness (as stated above) may or may not be needed when performing certain physical activities and sports. |
| Reasons for and limitations of fitness testing | Reasons for fitness testing:
Limitations of fitness testing:
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| Measuring the components of fitness | Knowledge of the main procedures of the tests used to measure the following
components of fitness:
Testing procedures refers to ‘how each test is carried out’ and includes reference to how the test is organised (when applicable) in relation to the following:
Evaluate whether or not these tests are relevant to performers in different sporting activities. |
| Demonstration of how data is collected for fitness testing | Understanding of how test scores are measured/recorded (eg in seconds, levels, centimeters, numbers). Definitions of the terms qualitative and quantitative, in relation to the collection of fitness testing data. Understanding that the quantitative data collected during fitness testing can be compared to national averages. |
The principles of training and their application to personal exercise/training programmes
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The principles of training and overload |
Key principles of training. SPORT to include:
Key principles of overload. FITT to include:
Students should be taught the terms and what they mean. |
Application of the principles of training |
How the principles of training can be applied to bring about improvements in fitness. Application of the principles to sporting examples. |
Types of training |
Understand the distinctions between different types of training. Circuit training – consider space available, equipment available, number of circuit stations, work:rest ratio, the content/demand of the circuit can be altered in order to improve different components of fitness. Continuous training – sustained exercise at a constant rate (steady state) without rests, involving aerobic demand for a minimum of 20 minutes, eg running, swimming, rowing, cycling. Fartlek training – varying speed, terrain and work:recovery ratios. Interval training/high intensity interval training – periods of exercising hard, interspersed with periods of rest or low intensity exercise. Static stretching – a way to stretch to increase flexibility, held (isometric) for up to 30 seconds, using correct technique, advisable to avoid over stretching. Weight training – choice of weight/exercise depends on fitness aim, eg strength/power training or muscular endurance, the importance of safe practice/lifting technique, the need for spotters. Plyometric training – use of plyometric exercises, eg bounding, depth jumping, to increase power. Basic physiological understanding (eccentric contraction followed by larger concentric contraction). Any training (and practice) method must take account of the following:
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Identification of the advantages and disadvantages (the effects on the body) of training types linked to specific aims |
The advantages and disadvantages (the effects on the body) of each type of training method stated above. Students should be taught to select and evaluate appropriate training methods for various (aerobic and anaerobic) fitness needs and make links to sporting activity, eg continuous training is fully appropriate to marathon runners. |
How to optimise training and prevent injury
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Calculating intensities to optimise training effectiveness |
Definition of training threshold. Calculate the aerobic/anaerobic training zone:
For circuit training, altering the time/rest/content of the circuit will determine the fitness aim. How to calculate one repetition maximum (one rep max) as part of weight training and how to make use of one rep max, with reference to:
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Considerations to prevent injury |
The training type/intensity should match the training purpose (eg aerobic or anaerobic). Where applicable, the following factors should be taken into account in order to prevent injury:
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Specific training techniques – high altitude training as a form of aerobic training |
How high altitude training is carried out:
Students should be taught to evaluate the benefits and the limitations of altitude training for different sports performers. Students do not need to be taught how to calculate intensities for altitude training. |
Seasonal aspects |
Names of the three training seasons:
An understanding of what each of the seasons entails (aims):
An understanding of the benefits of each season to the performer. Students should be taught to apply and justify the characteristics of the seasonal aspects to different sporting activities. |
Effective use of warm up and cool down
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Warming up and cooling down |
The constituent parts of warming up and cooling down. Warming up should include:
Cooling down should include:
Students should be taught to understand and justify appropriate elements of a warm up and a cool down for different sporting activities. The benefits of warming up:
The benefits of cooling down:
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Use of data
Students should develop knowledge and understanding of data analysis in relation to key areas of physical activity and sport.
Demonstrate an understanding of how data are collected – both qualitative and quantitative
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Quantitative data |
Quantitative data deals with numbers. |
Methods for collecting quantitative data |
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Qualitative data |
Qualitative data deals with descriptions. |
Methods for collecting qualitative data |
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Present data (including tables and graphs)
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Presenting data |
How to present data in tables. How to plot basic:
How to label x and y axes on bar charts and line graphs. |
Analyse and evaluate data
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Analysis and evaluation of data |
Interpretation of data presented in basic:
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